GUIDING THE OLDER ADULT LEARNER

 

Roger Hiemstra

 

1980

 

A background paper developed for ERIC (ED 193 529)

 

Contents

 

 

PAGE

Introduction

01

The Problem

02

TEACHING OLDER ADULTS

04

Problems in Practice

04

A Teaching and Learning

07

Instructional Guidelines

11

Case Studies

17

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

27

The Older Adult as Learner

27

Older Adults Can Learn!

27

Learning Activity and Ability

29

Learning Needs and Obstacles

30

Teacher as Facilitator

31

Self-Directed Learning

32

Teaching Techniques and Strategies

33

COGNITIVE CAPACITY

34

Models, Stages, and Theories

34

Memory and Intellect

34

Organizational Abilities

35

Associational Abilities

37

Speed and Pacing

38

NON-COGNITIVE FACTORS

38

Interference

39

Meaningfulness

40

Hesitancy

40

Health

41

Instructional Procedures

41

Educational Background of Learners

42

RESEARCH AND THE OLDER PERSON

43

Problems

43

Future Research Needs

44

SUMMARY

45

REFERENCES

47

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

58

APPENDIX A

61

 

 

OVERVIEW

 

INTRODUCTION

 

It will be no surprise to readers of this paper that the growth in the elderly population of the united states has been accelerating rapidly in the past two decades. That growth rate has been exceeded only by the interest of many people in the elderly population. A variety of human services practitioners have the older person as the very focus of their professional activities. Numerous volunteers spend considerable time each week with senior citizens. Educational specialists of various types are concerned with providing learning experiences for the older person. As Sheppard (1979) shows, educational opportunities for older people are on the increase. Numerous governmental employees direct their efforts toward seniors. Finally, researchers from both the physical and the social sciences continue the wide-ranging study of aging, the aged, and how to work with the aged.

 

It is this latter group that provides the base of information for this paper. However, it is no easy task interpreting the abundance of available research that is related in some way to working with and teaching the older person. Those research findings often are disparate in nature and frequently disagreement is found between researchers working on similar problems. Difficult, too, is the job of culling from the literature concrete implications for practice because new findings replace older knowledge almost daily.

 

Thus, it is the purpose of this paper to present a picture of existing knowledge regarding how one teaches the older person. By no means will it be possible to cover everything of importance to the teaching and learning process. Furthermore, the intended primary audience for this paper is the human services practitioner. Admittedly, this is a broad-based term designed to cover a variety of people such as social workers, extension specialists, librarians,

 

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leisure service providers, volunteer workers, counselors, and aging network employees. However, it is assumed that many such individuals will not have had much, and in many instances, any, professional training in working with the older person as a teacher or manager of educational experiences. Subsequently, a special effort will be made to outline in practical terms what can be suggested from the research and from available knowledge regarding the design and implementation of effective education. Hopefully, enough synthesis, knowledge, and resources will be provided to stimulate many primary audience readers toward further study, behavioral change in their practice, and creative thinking regarding how to work effectively with older persons.

 

Secondary audiences, such as adult educators, educational gerontologists, and a variety of researchers also should find the information helpful in providing a review, synthesis, and interpretational base related to the state of the art. Such an audience can further the knowledge base by challenging, substantiating, and improving on points made throughout the paper. The stimulation of some useful dialogue and some subsequent research will be a pleasant bonus.

 

THE PROBLEM

 

The major problem facing many people who deal with older persons is how to promote the learning, coping, and adjusting necessary for or related to age-associated change. Yet, inadequate preparation for such promotion or teaching tasks, individual differences among older people in terms of learning needs or skills, and an abundance of stereotypes regarding older adult learning abilities serve as barriers to successful teaching interventions.

 

Fortunately, a great deal is known about educational needs, teaching strategies, and learning abilities. Thus, the first major section of this paper

 

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will describe various approaches, techniques, and suggestions related to teaching, learning, and the older person. The information will be presented first in a general narrative that describes, some of the problems and questions facing the teacher of older adults. This will be followed by a description of a teaching and learning process that has been synthesized from the literature. Included in table format are several suggested implications for both the design of the learning experience and for the teacher to consider in developing personal instructional modes. Several case studies and exemplary programs will be described to highlight some of the important points and application efforts.

 

The second major section will present a review of the literature undergirding the first section. The topics of focus include the older adult as learner, cognitive capacities of older adults, and non-cognitive factors associated with older adult learning. The review is provided as a stimulus for the further study of interested readers.

 

Two smaller sections conclude the paper. One describes some of the future research needed if a more complete understanding of how to teach older adults is to be accomplished. The second presents a summary, some conclusions, and some final thoughts. The appendix includes a description of several important resources for the interested reader.

 

A word needs to be said about the procedures used in developing information for this paper. Obviously, the ERIC collection of materials related to the topic served as an initial guide. In addition, the computer searching capabilities of the ERIC Clearinghouse provided an abundance of periodic literature citations which, in turn, spawned numerous supporting citations. In addition, the author had access to a number of additional sources that proved useful. Both the “References” and the “Selected Bibliography” sections of this paper should provide the reader with further study assistance.

 

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Finally, a brief mention needs to be made about who is the older adult that serves as a focal point for discussion. This is not intended as a definition of the term nor will the reader find a definition of terms in this paper. There are almost as many definitions of the terms found throughout this paper as there are authors writing about the terms. However, it is important to point out that the healthy older adult, the biggest percentage of all people over some magical age like 65, is primarily what the author has in mind when making suggestions about teaching. Frail adults, institutionalized adults, and handicapped adults obviously serve as research subjects in many instances but special care, expertise, or problems often confound any needed teaching and learning interaction. Thus, the assumption is made that older adults are capable of learning, are willing to learn under the right conditions, and will benefit from good teaching and learning situations.

 

TEACHING OLDER ADULTS

 

PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE

 

Many practitioners who find themselves in a situation of wanting or needing to organize some sort of learning activity for older persons have had no formal preparation for teaching, especially teaching the adult as learner. Thus, directing a pre-retirement planning program, teaching nutrition information at a congregate meal site, or instructing a group of elderly on how to fill out some governmental forms often must be done by instinct, by trial and error, or by modeling from past experiences as a learner.

 

Another problem often centers around how best to organize and present necessary information to insure maximum learning. Questions about appropriate teaching techniques, how to structure the learning experience, concerns toward

 

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learner needs and learning inhibitors, and how to evaluate progress are some of those undergirding this problem.

 

A third major problem facing most people who attempt to conduct learning experiences centers around the role of the learner. Most authorities suggest that adult learners should take a large and active role in the entire teaching and learning process. This role, quite different from the role most learners assumed during their formal education as a youth, includes active participation in such activities as assessing needs, planning content, securing or serving as learning resources, and being involved in the implementation activities. The result of such active involvement is the development of personal ownership of and responsibility for the learning. Older adults appear to thrive on such involvement as well as younger adults (Hiemstra, 1975, 1976a, 1976c).

 

A related factor supporting this active involvement is the fact that most people have a tremendous ability in and desire for learning that is se1f-directed in nature (Hiemstra, 1975, Knowles, 1975, Tough, 1979). Knowles (1970), for example, describes several assumptions basic to what he calls the "andragogical" mode1, including the need for problem-centered learning, learning based on internal incentives, and learning that can be tied to one's own personal experiences. Kidd (1976) supports this notion as he talks about relevancy, relatedness, and responsibility in terms of individual or self needs. McClusky (1964), too, suggests that the adult student is autonomous and independent and that learning activity should facilitate active participation, be problem-centered in nature, and be highly meaningful.

 

Another question area facing many practitioners is just what should be the role of the teacher in the whole learning process? Historic expectations, often stemming from what such practitioners have seen mode1ed, in the main have focused on the belief that the dispensing of knowledge from an expert to a

 

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learner-receptor is the standard role. However, most authorities suggest that the successful teacher of adults utilizes facilitator techniques in managing the instructional process. facilitator concept. The next sub-section of this paper details this facilitator concept.

 

Thus, what is being advocated in this paper is that the person who wishes to be a successful instructor of older adults must become a specialist on the learning process and his or her own role in that process. Expertise on some content area often takes on secondary importance. Following are some of the specific duties related to this facilitating notion:

 

·        serving as one of several possible resources on a certain content area

·        locating appropriate resources or new information as warranted by student needs

·        arranging for and managing the successful employment of a variety of learning resources needed to accomplish certain goals

·        stimulating learners' interest in and motivation toward certain topics

·        helping learners develop positive attitudes toward learning and fostering independence

·        promoting discussion, questioning, and self-directed inquiry

·        serving as both evaluator for learner progress and stimulating learners’ self-evaluation

 

Success with such an approach will depend on the potential instructor's attitude and willingness to carry out some of the suggested duties. Assuming that the primary reader of this paper desires such success, a variety of ideas, techniques, and research findings will be presented that either relate directly to the facilitator notion or that help to explain some of the teaching and the adult as learner. Obviously, a great deal of literature exists related to However, the majority of information presented will learning requirements focus specifically on the older adult.

 

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A TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS

 

It would be helpful to most readers of this paper if a tried and true theory of adult teaching and learning could be presented at this point. Unfortunately, such a theory is still being researched and developed. However, some important pieces of that theory are in existence and several important sources describing the current state of the art are described in Appendix A.

 

A person who has brought perhaps the most attention to the teaching of adults is Knowles (1970). His development of a beginning theoretical framework for the teaching and learning process, andragogy, has aided many researchers in focusing their study efforts. The planning and design elements central to his framework will serve as a foundation for the process to be described in this paper. In addition, the notion described earlier that adults of all ages have been found to prefer themselves as the primary planner or director of and resource for learning will be incorporated into the process (Hiemstra, 1975, 1976c, Tough, 1979).

 

Table 1 outlines the basic process elements suggested for human services practitioners in planning educational activities for older adults. The process rests on five basic assumptions about the human condition and is adapted from Knowles' (1970) work:

 

  1. Self-Concept. As a person matures, individual self-concept evolves from one of dependency toward that of independence and self-direction.
  2. Experience. A person accumulates a huge reservoir of knowledge and experience during the maturation process that becomes an increasing resource for learning.
  3. Readiness to Learn. During the aging process a person's readiness for learning becomes oriented increasingly to various developmental tasks and social role expectations.
  4. Time Perspective. In maturity a person is most motivated to learn when immediate application is needed or can be seen.
  5. Learning Needs. During aging a person's orientation toward learning appears to shift from subject-centered awareness to problem-centered and coping needs.

 

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Table 1. Planning Elements and Methodological Implications of A Suggested Teaching and Learning Process for Adults

 

PLANNING ELEMENTS

METHODOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

A. Establishing a Learning Environment

1. Encourage informality and a spirit of mutuality

2. Create a non-threatening setting and work to reduce any initial anxiety that may exist

3. Arrange for comfortable seating, an attractive setting, and the maximization of adequate sight and sound qualities

4. Facilitate learners getting acquainted with each other through introductions, name tags, circle seating, etc.

B. Develop a Planning Mechanism

1. Use mutual planning techniques:

  • Form small planning and discussion groups
  • Encourage cooperative efforts in the planning process

2. Provide for adequate input by learners in the planning effort to promote feelings of personal ownership

C. Diagnose Learning Needs and Interests

1. Provide some initial focus and guidance in determining basic or potential learning parameters

2. Facilitate some initial self-diagnosis by learners through self-rating forms for personal interviews

3. Help to refine the majority needs through small group discussions, Delphi decision-making techniques, or facilitator-student dialogues

4. Establish a mechanism for continuous diagnosis or re-diagnosis

  • Develop periodic feedback devices
  • Encourage students to reexamine periodically their progress in relationship to need

D. Formulate Student and Group Objectives Based on Determined Needs

1. Provide a tentative outline of group objectives based on the needs assessed above and stated in measurable terms

  • Discuss the objectives in a large group setting or facilitate small group discussion of them
  • Revise the objectives as necessary

2. Facilitate the development of individual learner objectives in relation to the group objectives for maximum learner growth

  • Use a performance (learning) contract process (Knowles, 1975)
  • Obtain a personal commitment toward and ownership of the learning necessary to meet objectives

E. Design and Implement the Learning Experience

1. Promote the utilization of a wide variety of learning resources

  • Make available instructor-developed and instructor-located materials
  • Use outside content specialists to meet any unique needs
  • Encourage learners to locate and provide learning resources to their peers

2. Promote self-directed inquiry and the use of resources outside the traditional learning environment

3. Help learners design appropriate experiences according to need and ability

4. Encourage the utilization of a variety of self-directed learning activities

F. Evaluate the Learning Experience

1. Encourage individually determined evaluation techniques

  • Use peer group validation
  • Use evaluations by outside experts
  • Ask students to rediagnose their learning needs in terms of growth or change

2. If feasible, use mutually determined evaluations by student and instructor (through the learning contract)

3. Where feasible, do non-graded or anonymous testing procedures

4. Provide continuous feedback on learner progress

Adapted from Knowles (1970)

 

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Note, too, that the process assumes that most learning endeavors will involve people primarily in group settings. However, the self-directed learner can be helped to utilize portions of the process in planning and guiding his or her own learning. Furthermore, it is anticipated that the process or most portions of it can be adapted to almost any type of setting. The case study information presented later in this section will highlight some of the application possibilities.

 

The planning elements in Table 1 outline a logical flow of events in preparing for, planning, and carrying out a learning experience. The first four elements call for an active involvement of the learner in determining relevant needs and personal goals. In a two or three hour session as much as one hour might be invested in this preparatory stage; in a several session course or workshop the first one or two sessions might be utilized. However, the commitment toward and feeling of ownership for the subsequent learning builds a meaningfulness into subsequent activities that more than make up for any "lost" time. Note, however, that traditional, instructor roles of dispensing knowledge through lecture or some other means are greatly altered. Knowles (1970, 1975) and Meyer (1977) provide helpful discussion of related planning ideas, corresponding techniques, and underlying assumptions.

 

INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDELINES

 

The teaching and learning process described above suggests that the successful instructor of older adults must be a facilitator and manager of

 

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the learning environment. Greatly altering the more traditional mode of dispensing information and sometimes evaluating the level of acquisition or comprehension through testing procedures has fairly wide-spread literature support.

 

Unfortunately, there is not uniform agreement in terms of what makes up instructional interactions. Several sources in the appendix provide considerable help. What is possible in a review of the literature is the derivation of several suggestions to guide the instructor in developing personal approaches or styles.

 

Table 2 provides a synthesis of the various sources providing suggestions. Those sources cited in general have been, themselves, synthesis efforts where authors utilize accumulated knowledge and research findings to derive recommendations for practice. The interested reader can refer to the review of literature section for more specific details.

 

The table is organized around seven broad categories related to elements of instructional awareness or organizational need. The summary suggestions are provided to guide the beginning or concerned instructor in examining beliefs about and approaches to working with older persons. It is assumed that a human services practitioner who desires to be an effective instructor of older adults can employ the planning process outlined in Table 1 and the application suggestions shown in Table 2 to develop a personal teaching process. Obviously, trial and error, practice, and allowances for individual preferences or unique teaching situations will be required. The case studies and examples that follow may provide additional guidance and clarification.

 

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Table 2. Suggestions From the Literature Toward Guiding the Older Adult Learner

 

INSTRUCTIONAL ELEMENT

RESEARCHERS

APPLICATION SUGGESTIONS

Personal Approach of the Instructor

Gounard and Hulicka (1977); Hixon (1968); Jones (1980); Knox (1977); Mullan and Gorman (1972); Wass and West (1977)

1. Be positive, supportive, and helpful

2. Work to make the learner feel welcome

3. Maintain an environment of informality and levity

4. Help to promote learner confidence and self-respect

5. Treat the older learner with dignity

Sensitivity to Human Needs

Arenberg (1976, 1977); Gordon, R. D. (1974); Gounard and Hulicka (1977); Haase (1979); Jones (1980); Merriam (1977); State University (1973)

1. Pay attention to the physical environment

  • Reduce distractions
  • Insure comfortable seating, proper heating, and proper ventilation exists

2. Be sensitive to declining vision difficulties for some learners

  • Insure that lots of light is available
  • Use high contrast on visuals and handouts
  • Reduce glare or direct sunlight
  • Use large, bold print or type
  • Allow time for adjustment when going from light to dark or vice versa (showing a video, for example)

3. Be sensitive to declining hearing problems for some learners