Foundations of Adult Education Practice: A Self-Study Guide

Adult education is an exciting field to study and is equally exciting to be associated with as a learner or interested professional. The field is dynamic, growing, and full of opportunity. Today more than 50% of all American college students are over 21, with nearly 15% over age 35. Most authorities predict that the number of older students will continue to increase for some time to come. Researchers have found that almost every adult is engaged in one or more learning projects each year where a considerable amount of time in self-directed study takes place. It appears that an average of 500 hours is spent annually by a typical adult in such learning. In addition, training in the workplace is a multi-million dollar investment.

An aspect of our lives undergoing perhaps the most change today is the workplace. We may never again see the day when a person started working for an organization and then had an opportunity of working there for 30 or more years. Today, most change jobs and even careers several times in their lifetime. This means that we often are in transition and there are various learning implications. This constancy of change is very real. Deems (1995) talks about it this way:

Increasingly, instead of having a "career," a worker essentially contracts with a company to perform a set of tasks. Once those tasks--and the worker's assignment--are completed, the worker negotiates another contract with perhaps a different company for a new set of tasks. What will the eventual impact be? We can't know for sure, but what we do know is that the way work gets done is changing. (p. 23)

Much of this change has been fueled by the need for companies in the U.S. to remain competitive within a global economy. The results for such organizations as they go through their own transitions have included various kinds of change or training needs. What is not yet clear is the impact this will have on morale and even further disempowerment of some workers (Filipczak, 1995).

There also is a continuing stress on obtaining higher quality products or services at the lowest possible cost. Total quality management remains the most active workplace trend, with transitions to team-based structures close behind (Workplace Trends, 1995). Total quality improvement, while on the surface benefiting consumers, often results in the need for considerable extra training, increased employee workloads, and a constant need for employees to be involved in frequent problem solving activities.

The notion of more for less has even impacted the way some managers think about which employees are trained for what areas: "To stay successful, you need value-added services, so everything needs to be evaluated. . . . Management wants to know what value training adds to the business equation" (Gyrus Systems, 1996, p. 1). Education and training actually remains very big business for most organizations. Minoli (1996) notes that the U.S. corporate training market alone is estimated to be a $100-billion-a-year business, with upwards of 35 million individuals receiving formal, employer-sponsored education each year. Another estimate put the amount at more than 52 billion dollars a year (Training Budgets, 1995). Whatever the figure, unfortunately the "doing more with less" theme that seems prevalent today in the workplace has meant employing some training techniques that may be problematic in the long run, such as large numbers in training sessions, shorter training periods, and more technology-directed training packages (Hequet, 1995). Those of us desiring to or working as educators and trainers of adults must be prepared to work under varying kinds of both demands and constraints.

There are some positive benefits from the total quality movement and other workplace initiatives. Self-directed work teams and efforts to give employees a greater say in the management or operation of companies have increased (Orsburn, Moran, Musselwhite, and Zenger, 1990). Companies like Xerox, Proctor & Gamble, Ben & Jerry Ice Cream, Motorola, L. L. Bean, and Domino's pizza have won awards or received numerous accolades for their efforts in excellence, quality, and learner empowerment. Richard Durr, a manager of training for Motorola, notes that the success of implementing self-directed learning at his company has been very valuable in moving each employee toward "becoming an empowered lifelong learner" (1995, p. 343).

The educational implications of such new views and learning attitudes are numerous. Some organizations will find new markets for existing programs aimed at educating adults. Many organizations can redesign existing efforts to meet emerging educational needs related to workplace transitions. These will range from creating new workplace programs on a variety of topics to redesigning existing educational programs or efforts. Opportunities also exist for new partnerships between various employers and education providers. There even will be increasing opportunities for adult education and training consultants to build programs for a variety of specialized or outsourced needs.

Thus, those of us interested in adult education, training, and human resource development need whatever tools we can find to help employees in a wide variety of organizations or agencies deal with change and the constant need for new skills, knowledge, and behaviors.

Therefore, the general purpose of this self-study effort is to help you become aware of the nature of the field, its programs, agencies, and individuals. You will examine the contributions made by other disciplines to the knowledge of the field, the issues in practice and research, the field's present state of knowledge, and future roles of professional educators or trainers of adults. The course thus provides you with a foundation of knowledge about adult education and a foundation on which to build future learning endeavors.

Areas for Learning

The following topic areas suggest the range of content possible for in-depth personal study. There are many additional topics that may emerge based on your experience, need, and interests.

1. Scope and Nature of the Field of Adult Education

a. Definitions and terms

b. Theory foundations (e.g., andragogy, perspectives transformed, paradigm shifts, etc.)

c. Agencies and institutions

d. Types of settings (formal, nonformal, informal, etc.)

e. International aspects of adult education

f. Organization and literature of the field

2. The Adult Learner

a. Social and cultural roles

b. Developmental stages/theories

c. Cognition and learning

d. Participation

e. Self-directed learning/individualizing the instructional and learning processes

f. Learning environments

3. Adult Education/HRD Agencies and Programs

a. Types of organizations

b. Programming examples (continuing education, community education, higher education, training, literacy, etc.)

c. Nontraditional/distance education

d. Clientele groups

4. The Educator or Trainer of Adults

a. Functions and roles as practitioners

b. Professional development (graduate courses, professional associations, etc.)

c. Resources

d. Research and scholarship roles

5. History of Adult Education

a. Terminology

b. Historical developments (Lyceum, Chautauqua, Highlander, etc.)

c. Linkages to worldwide adult education and training

d. Famous adult educators (Dorothy Fisher, Cyril Houle, Malcolm Knowles, Alain Locke, Howard McClusky, etc.)

6. Philosophical Foundations

a. Importance to the field

b. Philosophical Orientations

c. Development of a personal philosophy and style

d. Application of philosophy and ethical issues

7. Trends/current issues

a. Current research and research needs

b. Controversial issues (mandatory continuing education, professionalization, standards for graduate study, life experiences credits, in-company or outsourced training, etc.)

c. Futures and Visioning processes

Competency Expectations

At the completion of this self-study effort, given active participation, you should be able to perform with excellence in the following ways:

1. Familiarization with the areas of learning described above.

2. The development of a personal philosophy statement (or an equivalent) relative to working with adult learners.

3. The development of a personal resource file of readings, learnings, ideas, etc. This actually can be the initiation of a personal portfolio that becomes a permanent record of your professional accomplishments.

4. The development of an appreciation for the field in terms of such questions as "Why Adult Education?" "What is its importance?" "What is its history?" and "What is its breadth?"

5. The development of a professional sense of self and the initiating of an ability to be an advocate for the field.

Textbook Suggestions

1. Merriam, S., & Brockett, R. (1996). The profession and practice of adult education: An introduction to the field. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

2. Hiemstra, R. (2002). Lifelong learning: An exploration of adult and continuing education within a setting of lifelong learning needs (3^rd Edition). Fayetteville, NY: HiTree Press. Only available electronically.

Suggested Self-Study Activities

Following are suggested learning activities for this self-study effort:

1. Learning Activity #1 - Learning Contract Design

Complete a self-diagnosis of needs relevant to this self-study area, design a learning contract (or plan) for meeting many of those needs, and carry out the planned activities.

Objective: To facilitate your ability to diagnose, articulate, and meet individual learning needs.

2. Learning Activity #2 - Readings

Complete those readings necessary to introduce you to the field of adult education and its literature. The bibliography in this document, those bibliographies in the suggested texts, those two suggested textbooks, and your own literature searching activity should be the primary means or sources for obtaining this knowledge base. At a minimum to maximize what you obtain from this self-study effort, you should include at least one of the two suggested textbooks, several articles from one or more journals central to the field, and some familiarity with at least eight of the sources listed in this document’s bibliography or general adult education/training sources that you can locate. (The development of an interactive reading log or some similar recording activity are common synthesizing tools).

Objective: To facilitate your acquisition of a broad-based comprehension of related literature.

3. Learning Activity #3 - Personal Journal or Diary, Resource File, or Initiation of a Professional Portfolio (chose a, b, or c)

a. Throughout your study efforts maintain a personal journal or diary to capture your growing understanding of the field. Any of these products should include systematic observations of insights, events, and changes in your perspective.

b. Develop a personal resource file of information on adult education programs, literature, resource bases, associations, authors, etc.

c. Initiate the development of a professional portfolio that captures the information described for "a" and "b" above and other material that reflect your current professional accomplishments.

Objectives: (1) To facilitate an understanding of the nature and scope of the field and to build critical reflection skills.

(2) To facilitate your skills in developing, cataloguing, and synthesizing information on the field of adult education and your development as a professional within it.

4. Learning Activity #4 - Develop a Personal Philosophy Statement

Develop a personal statement of educational philosophy and professional style relative to working with adults as learners. This could involve participating in some study efforts related to educational philosophies described later in this guide and then developing a statement that makes sense given requirements or constraints within your place of work, your own personality, and the ways you have developed for working with adult students or trainees. The product could be a 2-3 page paper in which you discuss your findings and conclusions in relation to the course readings and subsequent discussions. This could be then shared with friends, colleagues, etc. and you ask them for feedback as a way of reinforcing your learnings. [Alternatively, develop a personal Code of Ethics or a Statement of Professional Commitment—see the web page http://www-distance.syr.edu/ethics1.html—for examples.]

Objective: To facilitate your study of different philosophies related to working with people so that a personal statement of educational philosophy can be developed and described to others.

Choose learning activity #5, #6, or #7

5. Learning Activity #5 - Adult Learner Interviews

Conduct at least two informal or structured interviews with any adults and obtain information relative to learning activities, learning styles, learning attitudes, etc. Do more than two if possible. The product could be a 3-5 page paper in which you discuss your findings and conclusions in relation to the course readings and subsequent discussions. This could be then shared with friends, colleagues, etc. and you ask them for feedback as a way of reinforcing your learnings.

Objective: To facilitate your understanding of adult learners and the self-directed learning phenomenon.

6. Learning Activity #6 - Agency Study

Conduct a site visit and study an adult education or human resource development organization or agency. The product could be a 3-5 page paper in which you describe the agency and what you have learned regarding its adult education activities. This could be then shared with friends, colleagues, etc. and you ask them for feedback as a way of reinforcing your learnings.

Objective: To facilitate your initial understanding of at least one adult education agency--its purposes, its programs, and its personnel.

7. Learning Activity #7 - Personal Vitae of an Adult Education Historical Figure

Select an historical figure or individual of significance in the Adult Education field (living or deceased) for which a “personal vitae” has not been completed, and develop a personal vitae according to the guidelines (see http://www-distance.syr.edu/vitae.html). The product could be a 3-5 page personal vitae in which you describe what you have discovered about the individual. This could be then shared with friends, colleagues, etc. and you ask them for feedback as a way of reinforcing your learnings.

Objective: To facilitate your understanding of one aspect of the history of adult education in greater depth.

8. Learning Activity #8 - TERM PROJECT (any one of the following)

a. Complete an extensive paper on some topic related to the course content such as an elaboration, discussion, and/or analysis of some current issue, the examination of an international adult education issue or program, etc.

b. Acquaint yourself with the literature of the field by carrying out some reading activity that goes beyond that described in #2 above. This would include reading of a fairly broad, overview nature and would result in an interactive reading log, diary, journal, theory log, etc.

c. Carry out an historical study of some adult education person, agency, movement, etc. You can use various types of materials, but it is recommended you use the OCR material shown in the Adult Education History Project.

d. Negotiate some activity of your own choosing as a means of acquiring some in-depth on adult education.

[Suggestions on the nature of a final product are described later in this document.]

Objectives: (1) To facilitate your carrying out indepth study, acquisition, and comprehension of knowledge related to some course content area.

(2) To enhance your analytical skills in comparing, contrasting, and critically reflecting on various sources of information.

(Back to Table of Contents)

LEARNING ACTIVITY DESCRIPTIVE MATERIALS

LEARNING ACTIVITY #1 - LEARNING CONTRACT DESIGN

I. Preparation

A. Read through the material on learning contracts contained and/or referenced in this workbook (see Supplement A).

B. Determine personal learning needs (see Supplement B) as a means of determining where to concentrate some of your study efforts. Identify appropriate learning objectives, strategies, and resources, and design corresponding validation procedures.

C. Review examples of contract forms and completed contracts (as displayed in Supplements C-F) and/or talk with colleagues experienced in contracting to obtain an understanding of their value, nature, and form.

II. Presentation

A. Prepare a first version of your contract and share it with one or more friends and/or work colleagues to obtain their feedback.

B. After receiving feedback revise, if needed, and utilize this final document as a guide for your learning efforts.

III. Educational Goals

A. That you are able to diagnose, articulate, and meet individual learning needs.

B. That you obtain experience in utilizing learning contracts to guide your individualized, self-directed learning.

IV. Miscellaneous

A. Learning contracts may take on any form that makes personal sense and that describes individual learning plans.

B. Learning contracts are only initial guides and may be redesigned from time to time if your interests and/or goals change.

LEARNING ACTIVITY #1: SUPPLEMENT A - LEARNING CONTRACTS

INTRODUCTION

The use of learning contracts with adult learners has gained cogency during the past decade. Research on self-directed learning has resulted in the search for appropriate learning resources and guides and a need by many teachers of adults to provide some mechanism for learners to build on past experience and determine needs as they carry out learning activities. Finally, the emergence of non-traditional and online learning programs have mandated that some vehicle be available for learners to mix experience with actual learning endeavors. Thus, in response to these many needs the learning contract method is increasing in its use for adult learning.

An extended description of how to complete and utilize a learning contract is shown below. A blank form is provided for you to use if the described format is acceptable. In reality a learning contract can take on many shapes and forms ranging from audiotapes, to outlines, to descriptive statements, to elaborate explanations of process and product. The intent of utilizing learning contracts is to provide a vehicle whereby you can personalize the learning experience. Therefore, feel free to utilize whatever shape or form you develop or with which you feel comfortable. For supplemental reading on contracts, the following is recommended: http://www-distance.syr.edu/tlchap8.html.

LEARNING STYLE PREFERENCES

In developing your learning contract, it may be useful if you have a sense of your own learning and cognitive styles. As you begin to think about your learning contract, you may not yet have a thorough understanding of your own learning style, Thus, the following figure is provided as an initial tool to facilitate the learner who has never filled out a learning contract in obtaining some sense of what might be the best approach for this course.

Your Learning Style Preference

Cognitive Style

Self-Directed Learner

Other-Directed Learner

Learner Dependent

I. Standard Contract with suggested structure used as basic guide

II. Standard contract using suggestions from another person

Learner Independent

III. Create own contract in terms of content and procedure

IV. Develop own version of contract using suggestions from another person

Note that the range of possibilities is quite extensive.

SOME GUIDELINES FOR THE USE OF LEARNING CONTRACTS

Why Use Learning Contracts?

One of the most significant findings from research about adult learning is the following: When adults go about learning something naturally (as contrasted with being taught something), they are highly self-directing. Evidence has accumulated, too, that what adults learn on their own initiative they learn more deeply and permanently than what they learn by being taught (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991 – see http://home.twcny.rr.com/hiemstra/sdlindex.html).

Those kinds of learning that are engaged in for purely personal development can perhaps be planned and carried out completely by an individual on personal terms and with only a loose structure. But those kinds of learning that have as their purpose improving one's competence to perform on a job or in a profession must take into account the need and expectations of organizations, professions, and society. Learning contracts provide a means for negotiating reconciliation between these external needs and expectations and the learner's internal need and interests.

Furthermore, in traditional education the learning activity is structured by the teacher and the institution. The learner is told what objective to work toward, what resources are to be used and how (and when) to use them, and how any accomplishment of the objectives will be evaluated. This imposed structure conflicts with the adult's deep psychological need to be self-directing and may induce resistance, apathy, or withdrawal. Learning contracts provide a vehicle for making the planning of learning experiences a mutual undertaking between a learner and any helper, mentor, or teacher. By participating in the process of diagnosing personal needs, deriving objectives, identifying resources, choosing strategies, and evaluating accomplishments the learner develops a sense of ownership of (and commitment to) the plan. Learning contracts also are a means for making the learning objectives of any field or practical experience clear and explicit for both learners and facilitators.

How do you develop a learning contract?

Step 1: Diagnose your learning needs. A learning need is the gap between where you are now and where you want to be in regard to a particular set of competencies. You may already be aware of certain learning needs as a result of a personal appraisal or the long accumulation of evidence for yourself regarding any gaps between where you are now and where you would like to be.

If not (or even so), it might be worth your while to go through this process: First, construct a model of the competencies required to perform excellently the role (e.g., parent, teacher, civic leader, manager, consumer, professional worker, etc.) about which you are concerned. There may be a competency model already in existence that you can use as a thought-starter and checklist; many professions are developing such models. If not, you can build your own, with help from friends, colleagues, supervisors, and expert resource people.

A competency can be thought of as the ability to do something at some level of proficiency and is usually composed of some combination of knowledge, understanding, skill, attitude, and values. For example, "ability to ride a bicycle from my home to work to get in better physical shape" is a competency that involves some knowledge of how a bicycle operates and the route to work; an understanding of some of the dangers inherent in riding a bicycle; skill in mounting, pedaling, steering, and stopping a bicycle; an attitude or desire to ride a bicycle; and a valuing of the exercise it will yield. Ability to ride a bicycle in cross-country racing would be a higher-level competency that would require greater knowledge, understanding, skill, etc. It is useful to produce a competency model even if it is crude and subjective because of the clearer sense of direction it provides.

Having constructed a competency model, your next task is to assess the gap between where you are now and where the model says you should be in regard to each competency. You can do this alone or with the help of people who have been observing your performance. The chances are you will find that you have already developed certain competencies to a level of excellence so that you can concentrate on those you haven't mastered. An example of a competency model is contained in Appendix A.

Step 2: Specify your learning objectives. You’re now ready to begin with the first learning contract (objectives) column. Each of the learning needs diagnosed in Step 1 should be translated into a learning objective. Be sure your objectives describe what you will learn, not what you will do. State them in terms that are most meaningful to you--content acquisition, terminal behaviors, or direction of growth.

Step 3: Specify learning resources and strategies

Cognitive Style	Self-Directed Learner	Other-Directed Learner
Learner Dependent	I. Standard Contract with suggested structure used as basic guide	II. Standard contract using suggestions from another person
Learner Independent	III. Create own contract in terms of content and procedure	IV. Develop own version of contract using suggestions from another person